Raashid Shah - UPSC ONLINE ACADEMY

Arab Invasion Of Sindh

Arab Invasion Of Sindh : The rise of Islam is one of the marvels of history. In the summer of AD 622 a prophet, without honor in his own country, fled from his native city to seek an asylum in the town of Yathrib, since known as Madinat-un-Nabi, ‘the Prophet’s City’, rather more than two hundred miles north of Mecca, the town which had cast him out.Little more than a century later the successors and followers of the fugitive were ruling an empire which extended from the Atlantic to the Indus and from the Caspian to the cataracts of the Nile, and included Spain and Portugal, some of the most fertile regions of southern France, the whole of the northern coast of Africa, Upper and Lower Egypt, their own native Arabia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Transoxiana.They threatened Christendom almost simultaneously from the east and the west, besieging Constantinople three times and advancing into the heart of France, and but for the decisive victory of Theodosius III before the imperial city in 716 and the crushing defeat inflicted on them near Tours in 732 by Charles the Hammer, the whole of Europe would have passed under their sway.The battle of Poitiers decided whether the Christians’ bell or the muezzin’s cry should sound over Rome, Paris and London, whether the subtleties of the schoolmen and later, the philosophy of Greece, or the theology and jurisprudence of the Koran and the Traditions should be studied at Bologna, Paris, Oxford and Cambridge.By the beginning of the eighth century of the Christian era the Arabs had carried their arms as far as the western confines of India and bore sway in Mekran, the ancient Gedrosia, that torrid region extending inland from the northern shore of the Sea of Oman. Immediately to the east of this province lay the kingdom of Sind, ruled by Dahir, son of the usurping Brahman Chach.An act of piracy or brigandage, the circumstances of which are variously related, brought Dahir into conflict with his formidable neighbors.The King of Ceylon was sending to Hajjaj, viceroy of the eastern provinces of the caliphate, the orphan daughters of Muslim merchants who had died in his dominions, and his vessels were attacked and plundered by pirates of the coast of Sind.According to a less probable account, the King of Ceylon had himself accepted Islam, and was sending tribute to the Commander of the Faithful.Another author writes that Abdul Malik, the fifth Umayyad, and father of Walid, the reigning Caliph, had sent agents to India to purchase female slaves and other commodities, and that these agents, on reaching Debul, Dahir’s principal seaport, had been attacked and plundered by brigands.Hajjaj sent a letter through Muhammad bin Harun, governor of Mekran, demanding reparation, but Dahir replied that the aggressors were beyond his control, and that he was powerless to punish them.Hajjaj then obtained from Walid permission to send an expedition into Sind and dispatched Ubaidullah against Debul, but he was defeated and slain and Budail, who followed him, shared his fate.Hajjaj, deeply affected by these two failures, fitted out a third expedition, at the head of which he placed his cousin and son-in-law, Imaduddin Muhammad, son of Qasim, a youth of seventeen years of age.

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Main Features Of Indian Constitution:

Political Science / Raashid Shah

Main Features Of Indian Constitution: The constitution of India has many distinctive features of its own. The main features of Indian Constitution are discussed in this article.One of repeated criticism of the Indian constitution is that it is very little original and mostly borrowed from other constitutions. Even Dr. Ambedkar admitted in the Constituent Assembly that many elements were borrowed from foreign constitutions but they were not “slavish imitations” but adoption of time-tested constitutional principles like the “Rule of Law” or “Equality before Law” to serve the interests of the people.The first feature of Indian constitution is the most voluminous constitution ever created by men. In its original shape the constitution had 395 articles and several schedules, 60 odd amendments since 1950 only add to the bulk of the constitution. When contrasted with the six effective articles and 26 amendments of the U. S. constitution, one appreciates how bulky our constitution is.Again drafting of the constitution has not been very happy. The Constituent Assembly was pre-dominated by lawyers. The constitution is drafted in legalistic terms making it a ‘lawyer’s paradise’. This stands in sharp contrast with the U. S. constitution which is acclaimed as specimen of lucid constitutional drafting. However, the fact that our constitution has endured for forty years and during periods of acute crisis, shows its inherent strength and resilience. When constitutions of neighboring countries like Pakistan, Burma or Bangladesh were crumbling like houses of cards, our constitution stood steady like a rock.The great bulk of the Indian constitution is due to several factors.o Our founding fathers borrowed great constitutional principles from the foreign constitutions while avoiding their loopholes to ensure healthy political life to the citizens. Thus the fundamental rights were borrowed from the U. S. constitution. Parliamentary system of government from British, the Directive principles from the Irish constitution and the idea of emergency from the German Constitution and the Government of India Act of 1935.o Unlike other constitutions, the Indian constitution provides not only the basic law. It also provides very detailed and minute administrative provisions. This was to prevent subversion of the constitution through legislative process.o The vastness of the country and its population size and diversity, compelled the framers of the constitution to make provisions for the protection and promotion of the interests of different regions and groups in the country. Thus the constitution contains elaborate provisions for the minorities, scheduled castes and tribes etc.o Finally, the Indian constitution is an omnibus constitution. It is at the same time a constitution for the whole nation as well as for the component states of the Union.Second main feature of the Indian constitution is that it is a federal constitution. The term federal has not been used in the constitution. Instead India has been described as a “Union of States.” However all the characteristics of a federation viz. two sets of government—national government and a number of governments of the component units, division of powers between the national government and the governments of the units and a federal judiciary to act as the guardian of the constitution and to settle disputes between the centre and the units—are all present in the Indian constitution. However, the nature of the Indian federation is different from the nature of older federations like the U.S.A.Third feature of the Indian constitution it that it provides for parliamentary form of government both at the centre and in the states. This is borrowed from the Westminster model. The adoption of this model is partly due to India’s long familiarity with it during the British rule. However in the face of existence of multiplicity of parties in India, some political scientists question the wisdom of this step.Fourth feature of Indian Constitution is that though India has a written constitution which is a federal necessity, India’s constitution is far less rigid than a normal federal constitution. Truly, it is more flexible than rigid. Because of this flexibility, it has been possible to amend the constitution 60 times in less than forty years. By contrast the U. S. constitution could be amended only 26 times in 200 years.Fifth important feature of Indian Constitution is that the constitution like any modern written constitution has a preamble before it. The preamble is very lucid exposition of the philosophy of the constitution. The original preamble declared India to be a Sovereign Democratic Republic. The 42nd amendment makes India–a Sovereign, Secular Socialist Democratic Republic.Justice, liberty, equality and fraternity–are set as the ideas to be achieved by India as a nation. The preamble to the Indian constitution is praised by all critics for its lucid exposition of lofty political ideals.Sixth important featue of Indian Constitution is that the constitution guarantees fundamental rights of the citizens. Rights to equality, freedom, religion and constitutional remedies are the enumerated fundamental rights of Indian citizens. Originally right to property was also a fundamental right. Subsequently right to property was removed from the list of fundamental rights. Hence right to property is now a legal rather than constitutional right. The status property has been altered to give substance to India’s socialist aspirations.Seventhly, taking cue from the Irish constitution, our constitution also provides a number of Directive Principles. Such principles do not constitute any constitutional obligation for the government to fulfill; rather they are guide-lines to the government.Upholding secularism is another lofty aspect of our constitution. India does not have any state religion. In a country inhabited by people of all faiths, it is essential that the state remains neutral between religions. Acceptance of secularism as a political ideal was an act of wisdom and boldness particularly after the traumatic experience of India’s partition on religious lines.Finally, Indian constitution does not sanction double citizenship as in federations like the U.S.A. Where is only one uniform Indian citizenship.Our constitution was carefully tailored to suit the needs of the Indian, people. It is a tribute to the founding fathers that their work has endured in spite of strains and stresses.

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Preamble :

Political Science / Raashid Shah

Preamble : Indian constitution has a preamble attached to it. Though the preamble of the Constitution of India does not constitute an operative part of the Indian constitution, yet it serves several important purposes. It explains the ideals and objectives of the constitution.After 42nd amendment in 1976, the preamble to the constitution reads:“WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:JUSTICE, social, economic and political;LIBERTY, of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship:EQUALITY, of status and opportunity and to promote among them all;FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY, This 26th day of November 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES, and THIS CONSTITUTION.” An analysis of the preamble reveals that the source of the constitution is “We, the people.”But the constitutions were neither framed by the people nor were the members of the Constituent Assembly directly elected representatives of people. They were elected under the Cabinet Mission Plan during the British rule on the basis of restrictive franchise. Yet the claim that the constitution is derived from the people is justified because of its broad-based popular acceptance ever since it came into force.The very first sentence of the preamble declares India to be a Sovereign Socialist Democratic Republic.The term ‘sovereign‘ implies that India is internally supreme and externally free. State authority of India is supreme over all men and all associations within India’s territorial boundary. This is India’s internal sovereignty. Externally India is free from all external controls. India’s membership of the commonwealth or of the United Nations does not impose any external limit on her sovereignty. The Commonwealth is a free association of .sovereign Nations. It is no longer British Commonwealth. India does not accept the British Queen as the head of state. As Nehru pointed out, India joined the commonwealth by her “free will.” As for the U.N. it is not a super state but club of free nations. Membership of the U.N. in no way limits the authority of sovereign states. On the other hand, this membership is a mark of sovereignty of state, for only sovereign states are admitted to the membership of the United Nations.The terms socialist and secular were added to the preamble by 42nd amendment in 1976. India’s honeymoon with socialism began in the early fifties at the Avadi Congress. Glaring disparity in income distribution induced the government to control the commanding heights of the economy in the interest of suffering masses. That is why the right of private property was removed from the list of fundamental rights through a constitutional amendment.Again secularism is a glaring necessity in India’s socio-political context. Inhabited by people of all faiths, it is imperative that India does not accept any religion as the state-religion. India’s secularism ensures that religious minorities do not suffer from a sense of inferiority as do the minority communities in Pakistan or Bangladesh.The terms ‘Democratic Republic‘ in the preamble are very important. India’s aim is to build up not only a democratic political system but also a democratic social system. In the matter of political organization, India has opted for representative democracy. This implies that government power shall be vested in the popularly elected representatives of the people. In India popular elections give legitimacy to our rulers.A system is republican where no office of the state is held on the basis of hereditary prescriptive rights. In India every office of the state from the highest to the lowest is open to every citizen. Any citizen may occupy any office on the basis of merit. Thus, headship of the state is not hereditary as in England, nor is it based on military power as in dictatorial regimes.To build up an ideal democracy, the preamble emphasizes justice, liberty, equality and fraternity as political ideals. These ideals listed in the preamble are, according to Prof. Barker, the quintessence of western democracy.The ideal of justice implies a system where individuals can realize their full potentialities. In the view of our founding fathers it is not enough that there is political or legal justice. Political and legal justice is a myth unless accompanied by social and economic justice. Social justice implies that all social discriminations like caste or untouchability must be ended. Economic justice implies that economic exploitations should be ended. However, social and economic justice still remains unrealized dreams.The ideal of liberty aims at ensuring these freedoms which make men really free. Liberty to be meaningful must mean liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship. This concept of liberty is essentially political in nature. Non-mention of the economic liberty is certainly a drawback of the preamble.The ideal of equality is aimed at removing discriminations between citizens. This is particularly important in the Indian society, vitiated by caste system and untouchability. But here again one should remember that equality in the social arena is bound to be empty unless accompanied by economic equality.Finally, fraternity as an ideal is sought to be fostered to ensure the dignity of the individual and unity of the nation. One should however note that a fraternal feeling among Indians would grow only in proportion to the realization of the ideals of justice, liberty and equality. Thus fraternity is not an independent ideal but a resultant of the successful realization of important ideals listed earlier.

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Lingayat community

History / Raashid Shah

Lingayat community Lingayatism is a distinct Shaivite religious tradition in India. Its worship is centered on Hindu god Shiva as the universal god in the iconographic form of Ishtalinga. The adherents of this faith are known as Lingayats. Lingayatism was founded by the 12th-century philosopher and statesman Basava and spread by his followers, called Sharanas. Lingayatism emphasizes qualified monism and bhakti (loving devotion) to Shiva, with philosophical foundations similar to those of the 11th–12th-century South Indian philosopher Ramanuja The terms Lingayatism and Veerashaivism have been used synonymously, and Lingayats also referred to as Veerashaivas. Lingayatism is considered a Hindu sect,[2][5] but some Lingayats have sought legal recognition as a religion distinct from Hinduism. Lingayatism shares beliefs with Indian religions, such as about reincarnation, samsara and karma Contemporary Lingayatism is influential in South India, especially in the state of Karnataka. Today, Lingayats, along with Shaiva Siddhanta followers, Tirunelveli Saiva Pillai, Nadar, Naths, Pashupaths of Nepal, Kapalikas and others constitute the Shaiva population The Lingayat iṣṭaliṅga is an oval-shaped emblem symbolising Parashiva, the absolute reality, and is worn on the body by a cord hung around the neck. Basava is credited with founding Lingayatism and its secular practices. He was a 12th-century Hindu philosopher, statesman, Kannada poet in the Shiva-focussed Bhakti movement and a social reformer during the reign of the Kalachuri-dynasty king Bijjala I in Karnataka, India Basavanna spread social awareness through his poetry, popularly known as Vachanaas. Basavanna rejected gender or social discrimination, as well as some extant practices such as the wearing of sacred thread, and replaced this with the ritual of wearing Ishtalinga necklace, with an image of the Shiva Liṅga Lingayat scholars thrived in northern Karnataka during the centuries of rule by Vijayanagara Empire. The Lingayats likely were a part of the reason why Vijayanagara succeeded in territorial expansion and in withstanding the Deccan Sultanate wars. The Lingayat text Sunya sampadane grew out of the scholarly discussions in a Anubhava Mantap, and according to Bill Aitken, these were “compiled at the Vijayanagara court during the reign of Praudha Deva Raya Similarly, the scripture of Lingayatism Basava Purana was completed in 1369 during the reign of Vijayanagara ruler Bukka Raya I Lingayat (Veerashaiva) thinkers rejected the custodial hold of Brahmins over the Vedas and the shastras, but they did not outright reject the Vedic knowledge. The 13th-century Telugu Virashaiva poet Palkuriki Somanatha, author of Basava Purana – a scripture of Veerashaivas, for example asserted, “Virashaivism fully conformed to the Vedas and the shastras Lingayatism teaches a path to an individual’s spiritual progress is viewed, and describes it as a six-stage Satsthalasiddhanta. This concept progressively evolves the individual starting with the phase of a devotee, Shunya in a series of Kannada language texts is equated with the Virashaiva concept of the Supreme. In particular, the Shunya Sampadane texts present the ideas of Allama Prabhuin a form of dialogue, where shunya is that void and distinctions which a spiritual journey seeks to fill and eliminate. It is the described as state of union of one’s soul with the infinite Shiva, the state of blissful moksha. This Lingayat concept is similar to shunya Brahma concept found in certain texts of Vaishnavism, particularly in Odiya, such as the poetic Panchasakhas. It explains the Nirguna Brahman idea of Vedanta, that is the eternal unchanging metaphysical reality as “personified void”. However, both in Lingayatism and various flavors of Vaishnavism such as Mahima Dharma, the idea of Shunya is closer to the Hindu concept of metaphysical Brahman, rather than to the Śūnyatā concept of Buddhism.[35] However, there is some overlap, such as in the works of Bhima Bhoi. The Lingayats always wear the Ishtalinga held with a necklace. The Istalinga is made up of light gray slate stone coated with fine durable thick black paste of cow dung ashes mixed with some suitable oil to withstand wear and tear. Sometime it is made up of ashes mixed with clarified butter. The coating is called Kanti (covering) The Lingayats bury their dead. The dead are buried in the Dhyana mudra (meditating position) with their Ishta linga in their left hand.

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MIMAMSA

History / Raashid Shah

MIMAMSA : Mimamsa: According to this philosophy liberation is possible by means of karma Mimamsa is a Sanskrit word that means “reflection” or “critical investigation” It is one of six orthodox (astika) schools of Hinduism. The school is known for its philosophical theories on the nature of dharma, based on hermeneutics of the Vedas The Mīmāṃsā school was foundational and influential for the vedānticschools, which were also known as Uttara-Mīmāṃsā. The differences were that the Mīmāṃsā school developed and emphasized karma-kāṇḍa, or the study of ritual actions, using the four early Vedas, while the Vedānta schools developed and emphasized jñana-kāṇḍa, the study of knowledge and spirituality, using the later parts of Vedas like the Upaniṣads. The school of Mīmāṃsā consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines, but the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God. Rather, it held that the soul is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently active spiritual essence, and focused on the epistemology and metaphysics of dharma. The Mīmāṃsā school of Hinduism is a form of realism A key text of the Mīmāṃsā school is the Mīmāṃsā Sūtra of Jaimini Between the Samhitas and Brahmanas, the Mimamsa school places greater emphasis to the Brahmanas – the part of Vedas that is a commentary on Vedic rituals Purva-Mimamsa was just known as the Mimamsa school, and the Uttara-Mimamsa as the Vedantaschool The scholars of Mimamsa school are referred to as the Mimamsakas The core tenets of Pūrva Mīmāṃsā are ritualism (orthopraxy), anti-asceticism and anti-mysticism. The central aim of the school is elucidation of the nature of dharma, understood as a set ritual obligations and prerogatives to be performed properly.

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Framing of constitution:

Political Science, Uncategorized / Raashid Shah

Framing of constitution: The Constitution of India was framed by a Constituent Assembly set up under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946. The Assembly consisted of 389 members representing provinces (292), states (93), the Chief Commissioner Provinces (3) and Baluchistan (1).The Assembly held its first meeting on December 9, 1946, and elected Dr. Sachhidanand Sinha, the oldest member of the Assembly as the Provisional President. On December 11, 1946, the Assembly elected Dr Rajendra Prasad as its permanent Chairman.The strength of the Assembly was reduced to 299 (229 representing the provinces and 70 representing the states) following withdrawal of the Muslim League members after the partition of the country. The Constituent Assembly set up 13 committees for framing the constitution. On the basis of the reports of these committees, a draft of the Constitution was prepared by a seven-member Drafting Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr B R Ambedkar.The drafting Constitution was published in January, 1948 and people were given eight months. After the draft was discussed by the people, the press, the provincial assemblies and the Constituent Assembly in the light of the suggestions received, the same was finally adopted on November, 26, 1949, and was signed by the President of the Assembly. Thus, it took the Constituent Assembly 2 years, 11 months and 18 days to complete the task.The Constitution of India was not an original document. The framers of the Constitution freely borrowed the good features of other constitutions. However, while adopting those features, they made necessary modification for its suitability to the Indian conditions and avoided their defects. The Constitutions which exercised profound influence on the Indian Constitution were that of UK, USA, Ireland, Canada etc.The parliamentary system of government, rule of law, law-making procedure and single citizenship were borrowed from the British Constitution. Independence of Judiciary, Judicial Review, Fundamental Rights and guidelines for the removal of judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts were adopted from the US Constitution. The federal system with a strong central authority was adopted from Canada.Directive Principles of State Policy were borrowed from the Constitution of the Republic of Ireland. The idea of Concurrent List was borrowed from the Australian Constitution. The provisions relating to emergency were influenced by the Weimer Constitution.Above all, the Government of India Act, 1935, exercised great influence of the Indian Constitution. The federal scheme, office of Governor, powers of federal judiciary, etc., were drawn from this Act. In short, the Indian Constitution incorporated the best features of several existing constitutions.

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VAISESIKA DARSHAN

History / Raashid Shah

Vaiśeṣika darshana: Vaiśeṣika darshana was founded by Kaṇāda Kashyapa around the 2nd century BC The epistemology of Vaiśeṣika school of Hinduism, like Buddhism, accepted only two reliable means to knowledge: perception and inference. The Vaiśeṣika system became similar in its philosophical procedures, ethical conclusions and soteriology to the Nyāya school of Hinduism, but retained its difference in epistemology and metaphysics. Although the Vaisheshika system developed independently from the Nyaya school of Hinduism, the two became similar and are often studied together. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only two.

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21. Mercosur

Political Science / Raashid Shah

21. Mercosur • Mercosur is a sub-regional bloc. • Its full members are Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. • Its associate countries are Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador and Suriname, while the observer countries are New Zealand and Mexico. • The purpose of the bloc is to promote free trade and the fluid movement of goods, people and currency. • The official languages of the bloc are Spanish, Portuguese and Guarani. • The motto of the bloc is “Our North is the South.” 20. Citizenship Amendment Bill-2019 : Citizenship Amendment Bill-2019 : 1. The Citizenship Amendment Bill, 2019 (CAB) will be granted citizenship of India to Hindu, Christian, Sikh, Parsi, Jain, and Buddhist people who have fled from Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh due to the religious persecution. 2. Such illegal migrants who have entered India by 31 December 2014 will be able to apply for Indian citizenship. 3. Right now, it is compulsory to reside in India for 11 years to get Indian citizenship. The new bill reduces the residency limit to six years. 4. The Citizenship Amendment Bill, 2019 covers 6 communities – Hindu, Jain, Sikh, Parsi, Buddhist, and Christian migrants. 5. It has also been arranged that any legal action already taken against such people for s displacement or illegal migration will not affect his eligibility for permanent citizenship. 6. If the OCI cardholders violate the conditions, the center will have the right to cancel their card. 7. This bill was introduced in Lok Sabha in 2016. It was passed in Lok Sabha this year but stuck in the Rajya Sabha. 8. The Citizenship Amendment Bill was passed to amend the Citizenship Act, 1955. 9. It has been decided to give citizenship to people of other religions except Muslims in the new bill. The Opposition is taking up this matter and saying it a biased bill. 10. The Ministry of Home Affairs has empowered the concerned authorities in Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi to provide citizenship and natural certificates to migrants under sections 5 and 6 of the Citizenship Act, 1955.

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Samkhya school

History / Raashid Shah

Samkhya school: Samkhya school: It is most related to the Yoga school of Hinduism, and it was influential on other schools of Indian philosophy.Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose epistemology accepts three of six pramanas (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge The existence of God or supreme being is not directly asserted, nor considered relevant by the Samkhya philosophers. Sāṃkhya denies the final cause of Ishvara (God). While the Samkhya school considers the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge, it is an atheistic philosophy according to Paul Deussen and other scholars. A key difference between Samkhya and Yoga schools, state scholars,is that Yoga school accepts a “personal, yet essentially inactive, deity” or “personal god”. Some 19th and 20th century scholars suggested that Samkhya may have non-Vedic origins. Dandekar, similarly wrote in 1968, “The origin of the Sankhya is to be traced to the pre-Vedic non-Aryan thought complex”. Here – in Kaushitaki Upanishad and Chandogya Upanishad – the germ are to be found (of) two of the main ideas of classical Samkhya. Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as a founder of the Samkhya school. The earliest mention of dualism is in the Rigveda, a text that was compiled in the second millennium BCE

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MOUNTBATTEN PLAN

History / Raashid Shah

Mountbatten Plan : Congress and League reached at an agreement over partitioning two problem provinces of Punjab and Bengal so as to form absolute Hindu and Muslim majority blocks. The actual decision to partition however was left to the vote of members of Legislative assemblies of these two provinces, meeting in two parts, according to a plan known as ‘Mountbatten Plan’. One part representing muslim majority districts and the other the rest of the province. The members of each part will be empowered to vote whether or not the province should be partitioned. If a simple majority of either Part decided in favor of partition, division will take place. If partition were decided upon, each part of legislative assembly would decide whether it would join the existing or a new and separate Constituent Assembly. Indian Independence Act, 1947 : • It declared that India ceased to be a Dependency and the suzerainty of Crown over Indian states with effect from 15 August, 1947. Office of Secretary of State of India was abolished. Crown was not longer source of authority of neither India nor Pakistan.• Governor Generals of 2 dominions and Provincial governors to act as constitutional heads.• There was not longer executive council or Consellors as envisaged in GoI Act, 1935. The words ‘in his discretion’ and ‘individual judgement’ were removed from GoI Act, 1935, wherever they occurred in act. Thus GG and Governors of provinces lost their extra ordinary powers of legislation so as to compete with legislature. • The central legislature ceased to exist on 15 August 1947. Newly formed constituted Constituent assembly was to also function as Central legislature of dominion until new legislature was constituted under new constitution.

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