Raashid Shah

Mahajanapadas    In ancient India, a number of kingdoms emerged during the Vedic Age that were spread across the Indo-Gangetic plain. These kingdoms were also called as republics and 16 of them were regarded the greatest of all. These 16 kingdoms were known as the 16 Mahajanapadas. These 16 Maha Janapadas are mentioned in the ancient literature and scriptures. The term Maha Janapada actually means “great country” and is derived from Sanskrit. The sixteen mahajanapadas rose before the start of Buddhism in India. Though these places were tribal settlements initially, roughly by 600 B.C they grew into bigger political entities by grabbing land. The sixteen mahajanapadas are given here in detail. Anga The kingdom of Anga is mentioned in the Atharva Veda and was located roughly at the site of the present day Bihar and some parts of West Bengal. On the north was River Ganga and it was separated from the Magadha by River Champa. Anga was one of the most flourishing cities and was an important center of trade and commerce. It was regarded as one of the six principal cities of early India. Assaka / Ashmaka Assaka, also known as Ashmaka was a kingdom that was located in the south of India. During the time of Buddha, this tribe was located on the banks of river Godavari. The capital city of Assaka was known as Potana. It was situated in central India and extended till southern India. It is estimated that Assaka was situated roughly at the place where modern day Maharashtra is located. Avanti Avanti was a very important kingdom located in Western India and was considered to be one of the four important monarchies during the time Buddhism began in India. River Vetravati used to flow right through Avanti thus dividing it into north and south provinces. Avanti was located roughly at the place where the state of Madhya Pradesh is located now. Avanti was an important center of Buddhism and later became a part of Magadhan Empire. Chedi / Cheti There were two different settlements of the Chedis, also known as Cheti. One was in the mountainous regions of Nepal while the other was located near River Yamuna. The southern boundaries of Chedi went till the banks of River Narmada. The Chedis are mentioned in Rig Veda, which is regarded as the oldest scripture. This means that Chedis were prevalent here since a long time. Gandhara The Gandharas established themselves since the Vedic Age on the banks of River Kubha till the River Indus. With time, they crossed Indus and expanded their territory into Punjab. The Gandharas were very aggressive in nature and were masters of the art of warfare. It is said that this kingdom was founded by the son of Aruddha known as Gandhara. KambojaKamboja was said to have been located on either sides of the Hindukush. In early scriptures and literature, Kamboja is mentioned along with Gandhara, Darada and the Bahlika quite a number of times. The Kambojas were supposed to have both Indian and Iranian similarities. Kasi The Aryans who had settled around Varanasi were known as Kasis. The city was flanked by the rivers Varuna and Asi from which the place derives its name. Kasi was the most powerful kingdom of the sixteen Janapadas before the rise of Buddhism. During the rise of Buddha, it was converted into Kosala. This place is mentioned as Kausika / Kausaka in the Matsya Purana. Kosala Kosala was located around 70 miles to the north west of present day Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh. It was flanked in the south by River Ganga, in the north by the Himalayas and in the east by the River Gandak. The ruler was called king Prasenjit who was succeeded by his son Vidudabha. During his son’s reign, Kosala was combined with Magadha. The three chief cities of Kosala were Ayodhya, Saketa and Sravasti. Kuru The origin of the Kuru clan can be traced to the Puru – Bharata family. Some of them were settled in central India and some were living beyond the Himalayan ranges. It is said that the founder of Kururashtra in Kurukshetra was the son of Samvarsana called Kuru. The Kurus were known for their profound wisdom and sound health. The Kurus switched to republic form of government from monarchy during 5th Century B.C. Machcha / Matsya The kingdom of Matsya or Machcha is said to have comprised the region of the present day Jaipur in Rajasthan along with Alwar and Bharatpur. The founder of this kingdom was king Virata and the capital of this kingdom was named Viratanagara after him. The Matsya once formed a part of the Chedi kingdom as there are evidences that show that this place was ruled by the king of Chedi. Magadha The Magadhas are referred to in the Atharva Veda. According to the early scriptures, the Magadhas were not fully Brahmins. Thus, they were loathed at and were spoken of in contempt. Except for King Pramaganda, no other ruler is mentioned in the Vedas. It is stated in the Mahabharata that Magadha came into the limelight under the king Bimbisara and later under his son Ajatasatru. It was one of the chief empires of India during those times. The kingdom of Magadha was situated roughly where the present day Bihar is located. Malla Most of the scriptures of the Jains and Buddhists mention the Mallas. Their tribe was supposed to be quite powerful and they lived somewhere towards the Eastern India. The Mallas had a republic form of society and their dominant territory comprised of nine provinces. Two of these nine provinces (Pava and Kusinara) gained much importance in due course of time when Buddha came over here and took his last meal before breathing his last at Kusinara. Panchala The Panchalas were located in the north of India and had their province to the east of the Kurus. They were located between the Himalayan ranges and river Ganga. One can say that it was located

BUDDHISM   INTRODUCTIONLord Buddha, the founder of Buddhism was a contemporary of Mahavira. Buddhism gave the greatest setback to Hinduism. Lord Buddha is known by different names like Tathagata, Sakyamuni, and ‘The Enlightened One’. Though certain mythological stories have been concocted by the followers of Buddhism about the life of Lord Buddha, there are lot of reliable sources that bring forth the historicity of Lord Buddha. EARLY LIFE OF LORD BUDDHALord Buddha was born in 566 B.C. Some historians disagree on this data and mention the date of birth of Lord Buddha as being 563 B.C. He was the son of Shuddhodhan who used to rule a small republic known as Kapilvastu. Mahamaya was the name of his mother. She gave birth to Siddhartha at Lumbini garden near Kapilvastu. The site is marked by the celebrated Pillar of Ashoka containing an inscription of 249 B.C. “Here Sakyamuni was born. Here Bhagwan was born”. The mother of Siddhartha could not survive more than seven days after the birth of the child. Therefore, Siddhartha was brought up by his step-mother, Prajapati Gautami. FOUR GREAT INCIDENTS AND RENUNCIATIONBefore his renunciation four great incidents occurred in his life which proved to be the turning point in his career and ultimately he became “the enlightened one”. • The First incident occurred. When he was driving in the city in a chariot, he saw an old man, staggering under the weight of the years with wrinkled body, twittering teeth and who was moving with great difficulty. Gautama realised that it is foolish of man to be proud of his youth which does not last. • At second time, be saw a sick man which made him realise that such health is useless which ends by diseases. • At the third time he saw a funeral procession in which relations of the deceased were weeping loudly. Gautam thought as to what was the attraction of life whose end is so tragic and sad. • Lastly, he saw an ascetic whose aim was to attain salvation by freeing himself so much so that at one night he left home while his wife and son were sleeping, and became an ascetic This leaving of home in the search of knowledge is called ‘Mahaparityajea’ SEARCH OF KNOWLEDGEAfter leaving home, Gautam spent seven days in a garden of mangoes at the place called Anupiya. Thereafter he went to Vaishali in the search of a Guru and lived with a philosopher ‘Alara Kalama’. Alara Kalama was a very famous philosopher and had 300 students. But Siddhartha was not satisfied with his teachings and moved to another philosopher, Rudraka in Rajgriha. He could also not satisfy Siddhartha and Siddhartha then went to an Acharya named Ramputtra but remained dissatisfied with him also. Thus being dissatisfied with these teachers Siddhartha himself started practising severest penance for six years and reduced himself to a skeleton. Despite the severest penances he could not obtain knowledge which he was searching and left the penance by taking a bowl of pudding milk which was given to him by a village girl named, Sujata. Considering that Gautama had left the path of right knowledge his five Brahman disciples deserted him. ENLIGHTENMENTThereafter, he sat under a pipal tree in Gaya and started meditation with the resolve to continue it till he accquired the knowledge which he had been searching. He remained in meditation for seven days and seven nights and on the 8th day he was enlightend. From that day he was called ‘Tathagat or Buddha’ and this incident is called the ‘Great enlightenment’. GAUTMA AS A PREACHERAfter his enlightenment, Gautama decided to preach the knowledge thus acquired to the people for their benefit. First of all he went to Banaras and Saranath. At Saranath he preached the five monks who had left him in despair. These five monks became his first disciples and thus the foundation of Buddhist Sangha was laid. He preached his disciples the middle path. At Rajgriha King Bimbsara accorded him a great welcome and honour. After visiting Rajgriha, Gautama Buddha went to Kosala whose king Prasenjit became his disciple. There after he went to Kapilvastu where the great number of people including his wife Yashodhara and his son, Rahul were admitted to the Buddhist Sangha. The main centre of his activities was Magadha where he went again and again and preached. BesidesMagadha, he visited Kashi, Kosala, Vaijji, Avanti etc. and made many disciples and followeres.Thus Lord Buddha preached Buddhism till death. BUDDHA’S DEATHAfter having preached continuously for 45years, he attained Nirvana at Kusinagara at the age of eighty.At Vaishali while preaching the Buddhist Monks he had told that he would die after three months. From Vaishali he went to Patna. At the house of an iron smith, he ate the food which he could not digest. From there he went to Kusi Nagar and attained Nirvan there. His last words were “Now, Monks I have nothing more to tell you but that all that is composed is liable to decay strive after salvation energetically.” His remains were divided into eight parts and at different places eight stupas were erected on these remains. TEACHINGS OF LORD BUDDHA1) The essence of his teachings may be found in his first preaching which set in motion his dharmachakra.’ According to this from birth to the end man’s life is full of suffering. In this connection be emphasised the following four truths.a) The World is full of miseries-The world is full of sorrows and miseries and sufferings. Birth, old age, death, separation with beloved and the contact with unpleasant. All give us sorrowed misery.b) Desire Is the cause of Sorrows—A man full of desire can never get rid of sorrow.c) The end of sorrow is possible by the end of desire.d) Remedy of Sufferings. To end the sufferings of human beings Lord Buddha suggested the following eight noble paths :1.Right thought—By having right thought, man can distinguish between sin and piety, good and evil.2.Right belief—It is to be free

JAINISM    Jain tradition speaks of twenty-four Tirthankaras (prophets). In the Rigveda Mantros there are references to Rishabha the first Tirthankara as claimed by Jains. However, the first twenty-two Tirthankaras have no historical foundation. Only the last two, Parsva and Mahavira, are historical personages. Very little is known of Parsva’s life. It is believed that he was the son of Asvasena, king of Banaras. He became an ascetic at the age of thirty, got enlightenment after 84 days of penance, gave his message to the people up to the age of 100 years and died on Mount Sammeta in Bihar, nearly 250 years before Mahavira. LIFE OF MAHAVIRAIn fact, the real founder of Jainism was its 24th Tirthankara, Mahavira. His childhood name was Vardhamana. He was born in a suburb of Vaisali, called Kundagrama about 540 B.C. His father, Siddharatha was a wealthy nobleman of the Naya clan and his mother, Trishala was the sister of Chetaka, an eminent Lichhavi prince of Vaisali. He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter called Priyadarsana. He left his family and became a monk after the death of his parents at the age of 30. He abandoned his clothing after thirteen months and became a naked monk. After 12, years, near the village Jrimbhikagrama on the bank of the river Rijupalika, he got enlightenment under a Sa1 tree. Hencefourth, he was called Mahavira. He also became known as Jina (conqueror of passions) orNirgrantha (free from wordly fetters). The remaining thirty years of Mahavira’s life were spent in preaching his doctrines. The main areas of his activities were confined to the boundaries of Magadha, Anga, Mithila and Kosala. His followers were called Nirgranthas or Jainas. He died at Pawa (Pawapuri) in Nalanda district (Bihar) at the age of 72 about 468 B.C. MAIN SECTS OF JAINISMThe principal sects of Jainism are two: (a) Svetambaras; and (b)Digambaras. ? There are differences between the two sects regarding versions of some incidents of the life of Mahavira, the type of food taken by Jaina preachers (munis) and the question whether women can attain Nirvana or not. ? But, more than that, the basic difference is on the use of clothes.? It does not concern the followers or ordinary householder but the preachers. ? The preachers of Svetambara sect wore white clothes while preachers of Digambara sect practise complete nudity. It is said that during the reign of Chandra Gupta Maurya a terrible famine broke out in Magadha which continued for twelve years. At that time the chief of the Jaina community, Bhadrabahu, migrated to South India along with his many followers including Chandra Gupta and left Sthulabhadra as Chief of the Jainas that remained in Magadha. Sthulabhadra convened a council of Jainas at Patliputra when he felt that sacred scriptures of the Jainas were in danger of being lost. The council arranged the first 10 Purvas (Jainas’s sacred texts) in 12 Angas and allowed Jaina preachers to wear white robes. When the followers of Bhadrabahu came back from the South they found the Jainas of Magadha wearing white robes. They protested against it. But when there was no compromise the Jainas were divided into two aforesaid sects. Afterwards the Digambaras even refused to accept the 12 Angas (out of them one is lost now) as authentic. GROWTH OF JAINISMAt first Jainism made great progress than its other contemporary religion, Buddhism. During his own life time Mahavira had made it popular in the kingdom of Kosala, Magadha, Anga and Mithila. Many kshatriya kings and a few republican states supported its cause and thereby helped in its popularity.By the time of the Gupta-empire, Jaina religion had become popular from Orissa in the East to Gujarat in the West and also in the South as far as Kalinga and Mysore.Among the ruling dynasties, which supported Jainism, were mainly the Ganga and Kadamba dynasties of the South and among important rulers were Chandra Gupta Maurya (who probably accepted Jainism in his later life), Kharavela of Kàlinga and .Kumarapala and Siddharaja of Gujarat. PRINCIPLES OF JAINISMReligious texts written in Pali do not recognize Mahavira as an originator of a new religion but as a reformer of an existing religion. Mahavira accepted mostly the religious doctrines of Parsva but certainly made some alterations and additions to them. Parsva emphasizd self-control and penance and advised his followers to observe four principles: 1. Satya (truth); 2. Ahimsa (non-violence); 3. Aprigraha (no possession of property); 4. Asateya (not to receive any thing which is not freely given). To these Mahavira added one more, that is;5.Brahamacharya (celibacy).As regards philosophy, Jaina philosophy shows a close affinity to Hindu Samkhya philosophy. It also ignores the idea of God, accepts that the world is full of sorrows and believes in the theory ofkarma (action or deed) and transmigration of souls. Jaina philosophy is that of dualism. It believes that human personality is formed of two elements jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter). Among them while ajiva is destructible, jiva is indestructible and the salvation of an individual is possible through prgress of jiva. In short, the philosophy can be summed up as follows: the living (soul) and the non-living (matter), by coming into contact with each other, forge certain energies which bring about birth, death and various experiences of life; this process could be stopped, and the energies already forged destroyed by a course of discipline leading to nirvana (salvation) There are also certain other vows of morality. For example, a householder should each day feed out of what is cooked for himself such holy persons as may turn up at his house at the proper time. A monk has to observe certain other strict rules as well. He has to abandon all wordly possessions, has to cease living under a roof which may be called his own and has to root out every hair of his head by his own hands. He should walk only during the day taking care that he kills no being. In his talk

Later Vedic Period   The later Vedic Period commenced with the emergence of agriculture as the principal economic activity. Along with that, a declining trend was experienced as far as the importance of cattle rearing was concerned. Land and its protection started gaining significance and as a result, several large kingdoms arose. Political OrganizationThe rise of sixteen Mahajanapadas, along with the increasing powers of the King, comprise of the other characteristics of this period. Rituals like rajasuya, (royal consecration), vajapeya (chariot race) and ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) became widespread. At the same time, the say of the people in the administration diminished. SocietyAs far as the society is concerned, the concept of Varna and the rules of marriage became much more rigid than before. The status of the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas increased greatly and social mobility was totally restricted. The proper pronunciation of verses became to be considered as essential for prosperity and success in war. Kshatriyas started amassing wealth and started utilizing the services of the Brahmins. The other castes were slowly degraded. Around 500 BC, the later Vedic Period started giving rise to the period of the Middle kingdoms of India.The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic Period. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and kingdoms are mentioned in the later Vedic literature.One important development during this period is the growth of large kingdoms. Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning. ? Parikshat and Janamejaya were the famous rulers of Kuru kingdom. ? Pravahana Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas. He was a patron of learning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya. Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal kingdoms. ? The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and Dakshinapatha (southern India).POLITICAL ORGANIZATION DURING THE LATER:• Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period. Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or rashtras in the later Vedic period. Hence the royal power had increased along with the increase in the size of kingdom. • The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. They include Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race). • The kings also assumed titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth), Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler). In the later Vedic period, a large number of new officials were involved in the administration in addition to the existing purohita, senani and gramani. They include the treasury officer, tax collector and royal messenger. At the lower levels, the administration was carried on by the village assemblies. • The importance of the Samiti and the Sabha had diminished during the later Vedic period.ECONOMIC CONDITION DURING THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD:• Iron was used extensively in this period and this enabled the people to clear forests and to bring more land under cultivation. • Agriculture became the chief occupation. Improved types of implements were used for cultivation. • Besides barley, rice and wheat were grown. Knowledge of manure was another improvement. Industrial activity became more varied and there was greater specialization. • Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery made great progress. In addition to internal trade, foreign trade became extensive. The Later Vedic people were familiar with the sea and they traded with countries like Babylon. • A class of hereditary merchants (vaniya) came into existence. Vaisyas also carried on trade and commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known as ganas. Besides nishka of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver coins like satamana and krishnala were used as media of exchange.SOCIAL LIFE : The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras) or the Varna system was thoroughly established during the Later Vedic period. The two higher classes – Brahmana, and Kshatriya enjoyed privileges that were denied to the Vaisya and Sudra. A Brahmin occupied a higher position than a Kshatriya but sometimes Kshatriyas claimed a higher status over the Brahmins. Many sub-castes on the basis of their occupation appeared in this period.In the family, the power of the father increased during the Later Vedic period. There was no improvement in the status of women. They were still considered inferior and subordinate to men. Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child marriages had become common. According the Aitreya Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.RELIGION:Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic period. Sacrifices were still important and the rituals connected with them became more elaborate. The importance of prayers declined and that of sacrifices increased. Priesthood became a profession and a hereditary one.The formulae for sacrifices were invented and elaborated by the priestly class. Therefore, towards the end of this period there was a strong reaction against priestly domination and against sacrifices and rituals.The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result of these elaborate sacrifices. Also, the authors of the Upanishads, which is the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned away from the useless rituals and insisted on true knowledge (jnana) for peace and salvation.    

Vedic Age (1500 BC to 500 BC):   The Vedic Period or the Vedic Age refers to that time period when the Vedic Sanskrit texts were composed in India. The society that emerged during that time is known as the Vedic Period, or the Vedic Age, Civilization. The Vedic Civilization flourished between the 1500 BC and 500 BC on the Indo-Gangetic Plains of the Indian subcontinent. This civilization laid down the foundation of Hinduism as well as the associated Indian culture. The Vedic Age was followed by the golden age of Hinduism and classical Sanskrit literature, the Maurya Empire and the Middle Kingdoms of India. Vedic TextsLinguistically, the texts belonging to the Hindu Vedic Civilisation can be classified into the following five chronological branches: RigvedicThe oldest text of the Vedic Period, Rig Veda has many elements that are common with the Indo-Iranian texts, both in language and in content. One cannot find such similarity in any other Vedic text. There is a conflict as to the completion date of the Rig Veda. Some historians believe it to be 1500 BC, while the others believe it to be 3000 BC. This time period coincided with the Indus Valley Civilization. Mantra LanguageThe period of the Mantra Language includes the time of the compilation of the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita and the mantras of the Yajurveda. Though derived from the Rig Veda, all these texts experienced wide scale changes, in terms of language as well as at the time of reinterpretation. This time period coincided with the early Iron Age in northwestern India and the Black and Red Ware culture. Samhita ProseThe period of Samhita Prose represents the compilation and codification of a Vedic canon. The linguistic changes of this time include the complete loss of the injunctive, the subjunctive and the aorist. The commentary part of the Yajurveda belongs to the Samhita Prose period. During this time, the Painted Grey Ware culture was evident. Brahmana ProseThis period signifies Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas, along with the oldest Upanishads. Sutra LanguageThe last division of the Vedic Sanskrit can be traced upto 500 BC. During this time, a major portion of the Srauta Sutras, the Grihya Sutras and some Upanishads were composed. Epic and Paninian Sanskrit (Post Vedic)In the post-Vedic Period, the compilation of Mahabharata and Ramayana epics took place. The Classical Sanskrit described by Panini also emerged after the Vedic Age. The Vedanta and the Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period. During this time, the Northern Black Polished Ware culture started spreading over the northern parts of India. The end of the Vedic Period Civilization in India was marked by significant changes in the field of linguistics, culture and politics. With the invasion of the Indus valley by Darius I, in the 6th century, outside influences started creeping in. Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Period)The Rigvedic Period represents the time period when the Rig Veda was composed. The Rig Veda comprises of religious hymns, and allusions to various myths and stories. Some of the books even contain elements from the pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society. Some similarities are also found with the Andronovo culture and the Mittanni kingdoms. Thus, it is difficult to define the exact beginning of the Rigvedic period. The prominent features of the Rigvedic period are given below: Political OrganizationThe political units during the Rigvedic or the early Vedic period comprised of Grama (village), Vish and Jana. The biggest political unit was that of Jana, after which came Vish and then, Grama. The leader of a Grama was called Gramani, of a Vish was called Vishpati and that of Jana was known as Jyeshta. The rashtra (state) was governed by a Rajan (King) and he was known as Gopa (protector) and Samrat (supreme ruler). The king ruled with the consent and approval of the people. There were four councils, namely Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana, of which women were allowed to attend only two, Sabha and Vidhata. The duty of the king was to protect the tribe, in which he was assisted by the Purohita (chaplain) and the Senani (army chief). Society and EconomyNumerous social changes took place during the early Vedic period. The concept of Varna, along with the rules of marriage, was made quite stiff. Social stratification took place, with the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas being considered higher than the Shudras and the Vaisyas. Cows and bulls were accorded religious significance. The importance of agriculture started growing. The families became patriarchal and people began praying for the birth of a son. Vedic Religious PracticesRishis, composers of the hymns of the Rig Veda, were considered to be divine. Sacrifices and chanting of verses started gaining significance as the principal mode of worship. The main deities were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma. People also worshipped Mitra-Varuna, Surya (Sun), Vayu (wind), Usha (dawn), Prithvi (Earth) and Aditi (the mother of gods). Yoga and Vedanta became the basic elements of the religion.    

Harappan Civilisation   The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilizations of the Old World, and of the three the most widespread covering an area of 1.25 million km2.It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, one of the major rivers of Asia, and the Ghaggar-Hakra River, which once coursed through northwest India and eastern Pakistan. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s, in what was then the Punjab province of British India, and is now in Pakistan. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards, Mohenjo-Daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj.The Harappan civilization is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from these cultures. By 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered. Skeletal remains at Harappan sites belonged to proto-Australoid, Mongoloid, Mediterranean and AlpineThe mature phase of the Harappan civilization lasted from c. 2600 to 1900 BCE. With the inclusion of the predecessor and successor cultures—Early Harappan and Late Harappan, respectively—the entire Indus Valley Civilization may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. The Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan phases are also called the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, respectively, with the Regionalization era reaching back to the Neolithic Mehrgarh II period. “Discoveries at Mehrgarh changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization”, according to Ahmad Hasan Dani, professor emeritus at Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad. “There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village lifeGeography :The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pakistan and parts of northwestern India, Afghanistan and Iran, extending from Balochistan in the west to Uttar Pradesh in the east, northeastern Afghanistan to the north and Maharashtra to the south.The geography of the Indus Valley put the civilizations that arose there in a highly similar situation to those in Egypt and Peru, with rich agricultural lands being surrounded by highlands, desert, and ocean. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistan’s northwestern Frontier Province as well. Other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Gujarat. Coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor in Western Baluchistan to Lothal in Gujarat. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, in the Gomal River valley in northwestern Pakistan, at Manda, Jammu on the Beas River near Jammu, India, and at Alamgirpur on the Hindon River, only 28 km from Delhi.There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan and the seasonal Ghaggar River in India. Many Indus Valley (or Harappan) sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds. Among them are: Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, and Ganwariwala. Early Harappan :The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby Ravi River, lasted from circa 3300 BCE until 2800 BCE. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800–2600 BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site in northern Sindh, Pakistan, near Mohenjo Daro. The earliest examples of the Indus script dated to 3rd millennium BC. Discoveries from Bhirrana, Rajasthan, in India, by archeologist K. N. Dikshit indicate that Hakra ware from this area dates from as early as 7500 BC. Kot Diji (Harappan 2) represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan, with the citadel representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Another town of this stage was found at Kalibangan in India on the Hakra River. Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-making. Villagers had, by this time, domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as animals, including the water buffalo. Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres by 2600 BCE, from where the mature Harappan phase started.Mature Harappan :By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities had been turned into large urban centres. Such urban centres include Harappa,Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-Daro in modern day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in modern day India. In total, more than 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus Rivers and their tributaries.Cities :The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual.Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The house-building in some villages in the region still resembles in some respects the house-building of the Harappans. The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan

Bronze Age :   The Bronze Age is the second part of the three-age system (Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age) for classifying and studying prehistoric societies, particularly the ancient societies of the Mediterranean and Near East. More broadly, the Bronze Age of any culture is the period during which the most advanced metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use) in that culture uses bronze. This could either be based on the local smelting of copper and tin from ores, or trading for bronze from production areas elsewhere. Copper/tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact that there were no tin bronzes in western Asia before 3000 BC. Many, though not all, Bronze Age cultures flourished in prehistory. Some cultures developed extensive written records during their Bronze Ages. In some areas of the world the Bronze Age followed the Neolithic age. However, in many parts of sub-SaharanAfrica, the Neolithic age was directly followed by the Iron Age. In some parts of the world, a Copper Age followed the Neolithic Age and preceded the Bronze Age. The place and time of the invention of bronze are controversial. It is possible that bronzing was invented independently in the Maikop culture in the North Caucasus as far back as the mid 4th millennium BC, which would make them the makers of the oldest known bronze; but others date the same Maikop artifacts to the mid 3rd millennium BCE. However, the Maikop culture only had arsenic bronze, which is a naturally occurring alloy. Tin bronze, which developed later, requires more sophisticated production techniques; tin has to be mined (mainly as the tin ore cassiterite) and smelted separately, then added to molten copper to make the bronze alloy. In Mesopotamia, the Bronze Age begins at about 2900 BCE in the late Uruk period, spanning the Early Dynastic period of Sumer, the Akkadian Empire, the Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian periods and the period ofKassite hegemony. In Ancient Egypt, the Bronze Age begins in the Protodynastic period, c. 3150 BCE. The Aegean Bronze Age begins around 3000 BC, when civilizations first established a far-ranging trade network. This network imported tin and charcoal to Cyprus, where copper was mined and alloyed with the tin to produce bronze. Bronze objects were then exported far and wide, and supported the trade. Knowledge of navigation was well developed at this time, and reached a peak of skill not exceeded (except perhaps by Polynesian sailors) until 1730 CE when the invention of the chronometer enabled the precise determination of longitude. The Minoan civilization based in Knossos appears to have coordinated and defended its Bronze Age trade. The late Bronze Age Urnfield culture, (1300–700 BCE) is characterized by cremation burials. It includes the Lusatian culture in eastern Germany and Poland (1300–500 BCE) that continues into the Iron Age. The Central European Bronze Age is followed by the Iron Age Hallstatt culture (700–450 BCE).      

The Chalcolithic Age (5,500 – 3,000 BC) Originally the definition of the Chalcolithic period was clear. The beginning of the Chalcolithic age meant that humankind started using copper. The definition of the end, on the other hand, meant that the copper and tin are mixed to make bronze – hence Bronze age. However, later discoveries (e.g., Yumuktepe, circa 4300 BC) showed that before the Chalcolithic age started the humans were using copper. Also in the Chalcolithic period there was already experimentation to mix copper and tin. So the current definition of the Chalcolithic age seems to be out of date. It is also worth mentioning that, in addition to copper, use of stone and obsidian was common in this period.Obsidian is glass naturally forming around volcanoes when lava cools and solidifies fast before it crystallizes. Obsidian was used as a cutting tool in ancient times. Still in modern day it finds use as a cutting tool in some surgeries because of its superior sharpness compared to steel scalpel.Another distinguishing feature of this era was the sophistication in pottery making. Earthenware was decorated with variety of motifs (e.g., geometric) and paint was used in the process. The Chalcolithic artists spent their time mostly making monochrome and color painted pottery instead of drawing and painting the walls of the dwellings. As a continuation of the Neolithic era, terra cotta figurines of mother-goddess were common too.The Chalcolithic men used stone, adobe, and mud-bricks to build houses. They also learned how to use limestone for whitewash. The houses had stone foundations. The roofs, however, were flat.Beautiful metal tools attracted people who do not have them but have other valuable things to give, such as textile and ceramic. So trade started between people from different villages and tribes. Trade created new needs, such as keeping an inventory, making contracts between the traders. All these needs caused the invention of writing- not in Asia Minor though.Around 4,000 BC (the Late Chalcolithic period) the cities started to appear. Trading, the invention of writing, and relatively large size of population of human beings living in a close proximity were the beginning of the development process of modern societies that we have come to know now.Also circa 4,000 BC (the Late Chalcolithic age), migration to Asia Minor from the Balkans brought new people creating a heterogeneous cultural environment. Possibly, this development also helped promote the creation of modern societies. There were migrations from the Southeast too. And as in the rest of the history there were problems. During the droughts, for example, the tribes experiencing famine attacked and looted other tribes who had food.In the Early Stone Age, Asia Minor had the most advanced civilization. From the artifacts found it is known that the Chalcolithic men of Asia Minor interacted with the people in North Syria and Mesopotamia. However, towards the end of this period it lost its superiority. Egypt and Mesopotamia took the lead by improving trade and inventing writing. Asia Minor was a thousand years late in harnessing the power of writing. So at the end of the Chalcolithic Age the people of Asia Minor had a primitive life style compared to their neighbors, Egypt and Mesopotamia5.In the text the term “höyük” (mound) is used frequently. So it might be a good idea to explain what it means. In prehistoric times the dwellers of Asia Minor were building mud-brick houses on flat areas and lowlands, near rivers or creeks. When these houses were destroyed during earthquakes, wars, or just become unusable over the time, they were flattened and new ones were built on top of the previous ones. As the time passed the mounds were growing tall. When they reached 20-30 meters tall (66 – 98 ft.) climbing up and down used to become difficult so they were abandoned and new ones were built. Höyüks may reach to a diameter of 100 – 500 meters (328 – 1640 ft.). Since the new houses were built on top of the old demolished ones, they were in some sense recording the history, layer by layer over thousands of years.Since höyüks were dwellings of common people as opposed to the tumuli (tombs) of prominent individuals there are some main differences between höyüks and tumuli. Höyüks grow taller over a long period of time. If excavated, artifacts, such as common household tools, might be unearthed in its layers.Findings in the Hacilar settlement near Burdur and in Mersin-Yümüktepe area are some examples of the Chalcolithic age in Asia Minor. Among many other known Chalcolithic settlements in Asia Minor Nor#1untepe, Tepecik, Kalaycik, Kuruçay, Canhasan, Köskhöyük, Tülintepe, Korucutepe, Samsat, and Tilkitepe can be mentioned.